Pudding is a type of food which can either be a dessert served after the main meal or a savoury (salty or sweet and spicy) dish, served as part of the main meal.
In the United States, pudding means a sweet, milk-based dessert similar in consistency to egg-based custards, instant custards or a mousse, often commercially set using cornstarch, gelatin or similar coagulating agent. The modern American meaning of pudding as dessert has evolved from the original almost exclusive use of the term to describe savoury dishes, specifically those created using a process similar to that used for sausages, in which meat and other ingredients in mostly liquid form are encased and then steamed or boiled to set the contents.
In the United Kingdom, Ireland and some Commonwealth countries, the word pudding is used to describe sweet and savoury dishes. Savoury puddings include Yorkshire pudding, black pudding, suet pudding and steak and kidney pudding. Unless qualified, however, pudding usually means dessert and in the United Kingdom, pudding is used as a synonym for dessert.[1] Puddings made for dessert can be boiled and steamed puddings, baked puddings, bread puddings, batter puddings, milk puddings or even jellies.[2]
In some Commonwealth countries these puddings are known as custards (or curds) if they are egg-thickened, as blancmange if starch-thickened, and as jelly if gelatin-based. Pudding may also refer to other dishes such as bread pudding and rice pudding, although typically these names derive from their origin as British dishes.
The word pudding is believed to come from the French boudin, which may derive from the Latin botellus, meaning “small sausage”, referring to encased meats used in medieval European puddings.[3][2] Another proposed etymology is from the West German ‘pud’ meaning ‘to swell’.[2]
According to the Oxford English Dictionary the word pudding dates to the 13th century. It refers to the entrails or stomach of a sheep, pig or other animal stuffed with meat, offal, suet, oatmeal and seasonings.[4] By the 1500s the word was used to refer to the guts or entrails or the contents of other people’s stomachs especially when pierced with a sword, as in battle.[5] The Oxford English Dictionary describes puddings also as ‘a boiled, steamed or baked dish made with various sweet (or sometimes) savoury ingredients added to the mixture, typically including milk, eggs, and flour (or other starchy ingredients such as suet, rice, semolina, etc.), enclosed within a crust made from such a mixture’.[4]
The modern usage of the word pudding to mean a dessert has evolved from the almost exclusive use of the term to describe a savoury dish, specifically those created using a process similar to sausages, where meat and other ingredients in a mostly liquid form are encased and then steamed or boiled to set the contents. The most famous examples still surviving are black pudding and haggis. Other savoury dishes include suet pudding and steak and kidney pudding. Boiled or steamed pudding was a common main course aboard ships in the Royal Navy during the 18th and 19th centuries; pudding was used as the primary dish in which daily rations of flour and suet were employed.
In the United States and some parts of Canada, pudding characteristically denotes a sweet milk-based dessert similar in consistency to egg-based custards, instant custards or a mousse, often commercially set using cornstarch, tapioca, gelatin, or similar coagulating agent such as the Jell-O brand line of products. In Commonwealth countries (other than some Canadian regions), these foods are known as custards (or curds) if they are egg-thickened, blancmange if starch-thickened, and jelly if gelatin-based. Pudding may also refer to other dishes such as bread pudding and rice pudding in North America, although typically these names derive from their origin as British dishes.
Another early documented recipe for pudding is a reference to asida is found in a tenth century Arabic cookbook by Ibn Sayyar al-Warraq called Kitab al-Ṭabīḫ (Arabic: كتاب الطبيخ, The Book of Dishes).[7][8] It was described as a thick pudding of dates cooked with clarified butter (samn).[9] A recipe for asida was also mentioned in an anonymous Hispano-Muslim cookbook dating to the 13th century. In the 13th and 14th centuries, in the mountainous region of the Rif along the Mediterranean coast of Morocco, flour made from lightly grilled barley was used in place of wheat flour. A recipe for asida that adds argan seed oil was documented by Leo Africanus (c. 1465–1550), the Arab explorer known as Hasan al-Wazan in the Arab world.[9] According to the French scholar Maxime Rodinson, asida were typical foods among the Bedouin of pre-Islamic and, probably, later times.[9]
In the United Kingdom and some of the Commonwealth countries, the word pudding can be used to describe both sweet and savoury dishes. Unless qualified, however, the term in everyday usage typically denotes a dessert; in the United Kingdom, pudding is used as a synonym for a dessert course.[1]
Puddings had their ‘real heyday…’, according to food historian Annie Gray, ‘…from the seventeenth century onward’. It is argued that ‘the future of the boiled suet pudding as one of England’s national dishes was assured only when the pudding cloth came into use’ and although puddings boiled in cloths may have been mentioned in the medieval era[10][2] one of the earliest mentions is in 1617 in a recipe for Cambridge pudding, a pudding cloth is indicated; ‘throw your pudding in, being tied in a fair cloth; when it is boiled enough, cut it in the midst, and so serve it in’.[3][11]
The pudding cloth is said, according to food historian C. Anne Wilson, to have revolutionised puddings. ‘The invention of the pudding-cloth or bag finally severed the link between puddings and animal guts. Puddings could now be made at any time, and they became a regular part of the daily fare of almost all classes. Recipes for them proliferated.’[3]
The original pudding was formed by mixing various ingredients with a grain product or other binder such as butter, flour, cereal, eggs, and/or suet, resulting in a solid mass. These puddings are baked, steamed, or boiled. Depending on its ingredients, such a pudding may be served as a part of the main course or as a dessert.[12]
Steamed pies consisting of a filling completely enclosed by suet pastry are also known as puddings. These may be sweet or savoury and include such dishes as steak and kidney pudding.
The second and newer type of pudding consists of sugar, milk, and a thickening agent such as cornstarch, gelatin, eggs, rice or tapioca to create a sweet, creamy dessert. These puddings are made either by simmering on top of the stove in a saucepan or double boiler or by baking in an oven, often in a bain-marie. These puddings are easily scorched on the fire, which is why a double boiler is often used; microwave ovens are also now often used to avoid this problem and to reduce stirring.
Creamy puddings are typically served chilled, but a few, such as zabaglione and rice pudding, may be served warm. Instant puddings do not require boiling and can therefore be prepared more quickly.
This pudding terminology is common in North America and some European countries such as the Netherlands, whilst in Britain, egg-thickened puddings are considered custards and starch-thickened puddings called blancmange.
Table cream is a dessert, similar to blancmange. The dessert was popularized by English manufacturer Symington’s Ltd in the early 20th century. It is still produced under the Symington’s brand name, but no longer made by the original company.[13]
The Magic Pudding is a classic Australian children’s novel first published in 1918, written and illustrated by author Norman Lindsay. It tells of a bad-tempered, anthropomorphic pudding named Albert who, no matter how often he is eaten, always reforms in order to be eaten again. He is owned by three companions who must defend him against Pudding Thieves who want Albert for themselves.[16]
Pink Floyd‘s Another Brick in the Wall, part 2 (1979) ends with the voice of a Scottish-accented schoolmaster, actor Alex McAvoy (1928–2005) shouting, “If you don’t eat your meat, you can’t have any pudding! How can you have any pudding if you don’t eat your meat?!” over and over again.[17][18]
A website dedicated to the dessert, online since the mid-1990s and consisting only of a low-quality image of it, became famous in Brazil for its humorous and longstanding nature. In 2015, it was hacked by the Islamic State
Turchia, meaning “the land of the Turks”, had begun to be used in European texts for Anatolia by the end of the 12th century.[33][34][35] As a word in Turkic languages, Turk may mean “strong, strength, ripe” or “flourishing, in full strength”.[36] It may also mean ripe as in for a fruit or “in the prime of life, young, and vigorous” for a person.[37] As an ethnonym, the etymology is still unknown.[38] In addition to usage in languages such as Chinese in the 6th century,[35] the earliest mention of Turk (𐱅𐰇𐰺𐰜, türü̲k̲; or 𐱅𐰇𐰼𐰚, türk/tẄrk) in Turkic languages comes from the Second Turkic Khaganate.[39]
In Byzantine sources in the 10th century, the name Tourkia was used for defining two medieval states: Hungary (Western Tourkia); and Khazaria (Eastern Tourkia).[40][41] The Mamluk Sultanate, with its ruling elite of Turkic origin, was called the “State of the Turks” (Dawlat at-Turk, or Dawlat al-Atrāk, or Dawlat-at-Turkiyya).[42] Turkestan, also meaning the “land of the Turks”, was used for a historic region in Central Asia.[43]
Middle English usage of Turkye or Turkeye is found in The Book of the Duchess (written in 1369–1372) to refer to Anatolia or the Ottoman Empire.[44] The modern spelling Turkey dates back to at least 1719.[45] The bird called turkey was named as such due to trade of guineafowl from Turkey to England.[35] The name Turkey has been used in international treaties referring to the Ottoman Empire.[46] With the Treaty of Alexandropol, the name Türkiye entered international documents for the first time. In the treaty signed with Afghanistan in 1921, the expression Devlet-i Âliyye-i Türkiyye (“Sublime Turkish State”) was used, likened to the Ottoman Empire’s name.[47]
In December 2021, President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan called for expanded official usage of Türkiye, saying that Türkiye “represents and expresses the culture, civilization, and values of the Turkish nation in the best way”.[48] In May 2022, the Turkish government requested the United Nations and other international organizations to use Türkiye officially in English; the UN agreed.[49][50][51]
Hattian rulers were gradually replaced by Hittite rulers.[61] The Hittite kingdom was a large kingdom in Central Anatolia, with its capital of Hattusa.[61] It co-existed in Anatolia with Palaians and Luwians, approximately between 1700 and 1200 BC.[61] As the Hittite kingdom was disintegrating, further waves of Indo-European peoples migrated from southeastern Europe, which was followed by warfare.[69] The Thracians were also present in modern-day Turkish Thrace.[70] It is not known if the Trojan War is based on historical events.[71]Troy’s Late Bronze Age layers matches most with Iliad‘s story.[72]
Lycian Way is a 760 kilometers (470 mi) long hiking path in Southwestern Turkey.[73]
Around 750 BC, Phrygia had been established, with its two centers in Gordium and modern-day Kayseri.[74]Phrygians spoke an Indo-European language, which was closer to Greek than Anatolian languages.[65] Phrygians shared Anatolia with Neo-Hittites and Urartu. Luwian-speakers were probably the majority in various Anatolian Neo-Hittite states.[75] Urartians spoke a non-Indo-European language and their capital was around Lake Van.[76][74] Urartu and Phrygia fell in seventh century BC.[74][77] They were replaced by Carians, Lycians and Lydians.[77] These three cultures “can be considered a reassertion of the ancient, indigenous culture of the Hattian cities of Anatolia”.[77]
Before 1200 BC, there were four Greek-speaking settlements in Anatolia, including Miletus.[78] Around 1000 BC, Greeks started migrating to the west coast of Anatolia. These eastern Greek settlements played a vital role in shaping the Archaic Greek civilization;[74][79] important cities included Miletus, Ephesus, Halicarnassus, Smyrna (now İzmir) and Byzantium (now Istanbul), the latter founded by colonists from Megara in the seventh century BCE.[80] These settlements were grouped as Aeolis, Ionia, and Doris, after the specific Greek groups that settled them.[81][82] Further Greek colonization in Anatolia was led by Miletus and Megara in 750–480 BC.[83] The Greek cities along the Aegean prospered with trade, and saw remarkable scientific and scholarly accomplishments.[84]Thales and Anaximander from Miletus founded the Ionian School of philosophy, thereby laying the foundations of rationalism and Western philosophy.[85]
Following the victories of Alexander in 334 BC and 333 BC, the Achaemenid Empire collapsed and Anatolia became part of the Macedonian Empire.[77] This led to increasing cultural homogeneity and Hellenization of the Anatolian interior,[88][89][90] which met resistance in some places.[91] Following Alexander’s death, the Seleucids ruled large parts of Anatolia, while native Anatolian states emerged in the Marmara and Black Sea areas. In eastern Anatolia, the kingdom of Armenia appeared. In third century BC, Celts invaded central Anatolia and continued as a major ethnic group in the area for around 200 years. They were known as the Galatians.[92]
The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of the Roman Empire centered in Constantinople during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages. The eastern half of the Empire survived the conditions that caused the fall of the West in the 5th century AD, and continued to exist until the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire in 1453. During most of its existence, the empire remained the most powerful economic, cultural, and military force in the Mediterranean world. The term Byzantine Empire was only coined following the empire’s demise; its citizens referred to the polity as the “Roman Empire” and to themselves as Romans. Due to the imperial seat’s move from Rome to Byzantium, the adoption of Christianity as the state religion, and the predominance of Greek instead of Latin, modern historians continue to make a distinction between the earlier Roman Empire and the later Byzantine Empire.[citation needed]
In the early Byzantine Empire period, the Anatolian coastal areas were Greek speaking. In addition to natives, interior Anatolia had diverse groups such as Goths, Celts, Persians and Jews. Interior Anatolia had been “heavily Hellenized”.[99]Anatolian languages eventually became extinct after Hellenization of Anatolia.[100]
According to historians and linguists, the Proto-Turkic language originated in Central-East Asia.[101] Initially, Proto-Turkic speakers were potentially both hunter-gatherers and farmers; they later became nomadicpastoralists.[102] Early and medieval Turkic groups exhibited a wide range of both East Asian and West-Eurasian physical appearances and genetic origins, in part through long-term contact with neighboring peoples such as Iranic, Mongolic, Tocharian, Uralic, and Yeniseian peoples.[103] During the 9th and 10th centuries CE, the Oghuz were a Turkic group that lived in the Caspian and Aral steppes.[104] Partly due to pressure from the Kipchaks, the Oghuz migrated into Iran and Transoxiana.[104] They mixed with Iranic-speaking groups in the area and converted to Islam.[104] Oghuz Turks were also known as Turkmen or Turkoman.[105][104]
Based around Söğüt, Ottoman Beylik was founded by Osman I in the early 14th century.[124] According to Ottoman chroniclers, Osman descended from the Kayı tribe of the Oghuz Turks.[125] Ottomans started annexing the nearby Turkish beyliks (principalities) in Anatolia and expanded into the Balkans.[126]Mehmed II completed Ottoman conquest of the Byzantine Empire by capturing its capital, Constantinople, on 29 May 1453.[127]Selim I united Anatolia under Ottoman rule.[128] Turkification continued as Ottomans mixed with various indigenous people in Anatolia and the Balkans.[125]
The Turkish Provisional Government in Ankara, which had declared itself the legitimate government of the country on 23 April 1920, started to formalize the legal transition from the old Ottoman into the new Republican political system. The Ankara Government engaged in armed and diplomatic struggle. In 1921–1923, the Armenian, Greek, French, and British armies had been expelled.[158][159][160][161] The military advance and diplomatic success of the Ankara Government resulted in the signing of the Armistice of Mudanya on 11 October 1922. On 1 November 1922, the Turkish Parliament in Ankara formally abolished the Sultanate, thus ending 623 years of monarchical Ottoman rule.
The Treaty of Lausanne of 24 July 1923, which superseded the Treaty of Sèvres,[156][157] led to the international recognition of the sovereignty of the new Turkish state as the successor state of the Ottoman Empire. On 4 October 1923, the Allied occupation of Turkey ended with the withdrawal of the last Allied troops from Istanbul. The Turkish Republic was officially proclaimed on 29 October 1923 in Ankara, the country’s new capital.[162] The Lausanne Convention stipulated a population exchange between Greece and Turkey.[163]
In 2014, prime minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan won Turkey’s first direct presidential election.[181] On 15 July 2016, an unsuccessful coup attempt tried to oust the government.[182] According to the Turkish government, there are 13,251 arrested or convicted people in jail as of 2024, related to the 2016 coup attempt.[183][184] With a referendum in 2017, the parliamentary republic was replaced by an executive presidential system. The office of the prime minister was abolished, and its powers and duties were transferred to the president. On the referendum day, while the voting was still underway, the Supreme Electoral Council lifted a rule that required each ballot to have an official stamp.[185] The opposition parties claimed that as many as 2.5 million ballots without a stamp were accepted as valid.[185] In 2025 the PKK declared a ceasefire.[186]
The Parliament has 600 seats, distributed among the provinces proportionally to the population. The Parliament and the president serve a five-year terms, with elections on the same day. The president is elected by direct vote and cannot run for re-election after two terms, unless the parliament calls early presidential elections during the second term.[citation needed] The Constitutional Court is composed of 15 members, elected for single 12-year terms. They are obliged to retire when they are over the age of 65.[193] Turkish politics have become increasingly associated with democratic backsliding, being described as a competitive authoritarian system.[194][195]
The Constitutional Court can strip the public financing of political parties that it deems anti-secular or having ties to terrorism, or ban their existence altogether.[199][200] The electoral threshold for political parties at national level is seven percent of the votes.[201] Smaller parties can avoid the electoral threshold by forming an alliance with other parties. Independent candidates are not subject to an electoral threshold.
The Court of Cassation is the final court for reviewing verdicts given by courts of criminal and civil justice.
With the founding of the Republic, Turkey adopted a civil law legal system, replacing Sharia-derived Ottoman law. The Civil Code, adopted in 1926, was based on the Swiss Civil Code of 1907 and the Swiss Code of Obligations of 1911. Although it underwent a number of changes in 2002, it retains much of the basis of the original Code. The Criminal Code, originally based on the Italian Criminal Code, was replaced in 2005 by a Code with principles similar to the German Penal Code and German law generally. Administrative law is based on the French equivalent and procedural law generally shows the influence of the Swiss, German and French legal systems.[204] Islamic principles do not play a part in the legal system.[205]
Law enforcement in Turkey is carried out by several agencies under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Internal Affairs. These agencies are the General Directorate of Security, the Gendarmerie General Command and the Coast Guard Command.[206] In the years of government by the Justice and Development Party and Erdoğan, particularly since 2013, the independence and integrity of the Turkish judiciary has increasingly been said to be in doubt by institutions, parliamentarians and journalists both within and outside of Turkey, because of political interference in the promotion of judges and prosecutors and in their pursuit of public duty.[207][208][209]
Women demonstrating and asking for non-interference with their clothing in Kadıköy, Istanbul[257]
Article 2 of the Turkish Constitution includes references to upholding the rule of law and human rights.[258] In the 2000s, legal changes were made for public use of and teaching in the Kurdish language. This included opening a Kurdish-language national TV channel. Various “openings” were made to address concerns of minorities such as Alevi, ethnic Kurds, and ethnic Romani people.[259] Sentences for violence against women were strengthened.[259]
In 2013, widespread protests erupted, sparked by a plan to demolish Gezi Park but soon growing into general anti-government dissent.[260] On 20 May 2016, the Turkish parliament stripped almost a quarter of its members of immunity from prosecution, including 101 deputies from the pro-Kurdish HDP and the main opposition CHP party.[261][262] According to the Committee to Protect Journalists, there are 13 jailed journalists in Turkey.[263] In its 2023 report, the European Commission criticized how democratic institutions in Turkey operate.[264] The criticism was rejected by Turkey.[265] As of 2023, Turkey was the country with the highest number of European Court of Human Rights cases.[266]
Istanbul Pride was organized in 2003 for the first time. Since 2015, parades in Istanbul have been denied permission by the government.[267]
Prior to 1858, Ottoman Empire had “a lenient legal accommodation of same-sex intimacy”. When prosecuted, the punishment was monetary fines. In 1858, the 1810 French Penal Code was adopted by the Ottomans, which had no penalties for same-sex intimacy that is private.[268] Under the Republic, same sex acts have never been criminalized.[269] However, LGBT people in Turkey face discrimination, harassment and even violence.[270] In a survey conducted in 2016, 33% of respondents said that LGBT people should have equal rights, which increased to 45% in 2020. Another survey in 2018 found that the proportion of people who would not want a homosexual neighbor decreased from 55% in 2018 to 47% in 2019.[271][272]
When the annual Istanbul Pride was inaugurated in 2003, Turkey became the first Muslim-majority country to hold a gay pride march.[273] Since 2015, parades at Taksim Square and İstiklal Avenue have been denied government permission, citing security concerns, but hundreds of people have defied the ban each year.[267] The bans were criticized.[267]
Turkey covers an area of 783,562 square kilometres (302,535 square miles).[274] With Turkish straits and Sea of Marmara in between, Turkey bridges Western Asia and Southeastern Europe.[275] Turkey’s Asian side covers 97% of its surface, and is often called Anatolia.[276] Another definition of Anatolia’s eastern boundary is an imprecise line from the Black Sea to Gulf of Iskenderun.[277]Eastern Thrace, Turkey’s European side, includes around 10% of the population and covers 3% of the surface area.[278] The country is encircled by seas on three sides: the Aegean Sea to the west, the Black Sea to the north and the Mediterranean Sea to the south.[279] Turkey is bordered by Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan and Iran to the east.[279] To the south, it’s bordered by Syria and Iraq.[280] To the north, its Thracian area is bordered by Greece and Bulgaria.[279]
Turkey’s position at the crossroads of the land, sea and air routes between the three Old World continents and the variety of the habitats across its ecoregions have produced considerable species diversity and a vibrant ecosystem.[295] Out of the 36 biodiversity hotspots in the world, Turkey includes 3 of them.[296] These are the Mediterranean, Irano-Anatolian, and Caucasus hotspots.[296]
The coastal areas of Turkey bordering the Aegean and Mediterranean Seas have a temperateMediterranean climate, with hot, dry summers and mild to cool, wet winters.[306] The coastal areas bordering the Black Sea have a temperate oceanic climate with warm, wet summers and cool to cold, wet winters.[306] The Turkish Black Sea coast receives the most precipitation and is the only region of Turkey that receives high precipitation throughout the year.[306] The eastern part of the Black Sea coast averages 2,200 millimetres (87 in) annually which is the highest precipitation in the country.[306] The coastal areas bordering the Sea of Marmara, which connects the Aegean Sea and the Black Sea, have a transitional climate between a temperate Mediterranean climate and a temperate oceanic climate with warm to hot, moderately dry summers and cool to cold, wet winters.[306]
Snow falls on the coastal areas of the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea almost every winter but usually melts in no more than a few days.[306] However, snow is rare in the coastal areas of the Aegean Sea and very rare in the coastal areas of the Mediterranean Sea.[306] Winters on the Anatolian plateau are especially severe. Temperatures of −30 to −40 °C (−22 to −40 °F) do occur in northeastern Anatolia, and snow may lie on the ground for at least 120 days of the year, and during the entire year on the summits of the highest mountains. In central Anatolia the temperatures can drop below −20 °C (−4 °F) with the mountains being even colder. Mountains close to the coast prevent Mediterranean influences from extending inland, giving the central Anatolian Plateau a continental climate with sharply contrasting seasons.[306]
Due to socioeconomic, climatic, and geographic factors, Turkey is highly vulnerable to climate change.[308] This applies to nine out of ten climate vulnerability dimensions, such as “average annual risk to wellbeing”.[308]OECD median is two out of ten.[308] Inclusive and swift growth is needed for decreasing vulnerability.[309] Turkey aims to achieve net zero emissions by 2053.[310] Accomplishing climate goals would require large investments, but would also result in net economic benefits, broadly due to reduced imports of fuel and due to better health from lowering air pollution.[311]
Turkey is an upper-middle-income country and an emerging market.[288][316] A founding member of the OECD and G20, it is the 17th-largest economy by nominal and the 12th-largest economy by PPP-adjusted GDP in the world.[317] It is classified among newly industrialized countries. Services account for the majority of GDP, whereas industry accounts for more than 30%.[318] Agriculture contributes about 7%.[318] According to IMF estimates, Turkey’s GDP per capita by PPP is $40,283 in 2024, while its nominal GDP per capita is $15,666.[317]Foreign direct investment in Turkey peaked at $22.05 billion in 2007 and dropped to $13.09 billion in 2022.[319] Potential growth is weakened by long-lasting structural and macro obstacles, such as slow rates of productivity growth and high inflation.[288]
Between 2007 and 2021, the share of population below the PPP-$6.85 per day international poverty threshold declined from 20% to 7.6%.[288] In 2023, 13.9% of the population was below the national at-risk-of-poverty rate.[327] In 2021, 34% of the population were at risk of poverty or social exclusion, using Eurostat definition.[328] Unemployment in Turkey was 10.4% in 2022.[329] In 2021, it was estimated that 47% of total disposable income was received by the top 20% of income earners, while the lowest 20% received only 6%.[330]
Turkey has made security of its energy supply a top priority, given its heavy reliance on gas and oil imports.[339] Turkey’s main energy supply sources are Russia, West Asia, and Central Asia.[214]Gas production began in 2023 in the recently discovered Sakarya gas field. When fully operational, it will supply about 30% of the natural gas needed domestically.[343][344] Turkey aims to become a hub for regional energy transportation.[345] Several oil and gas pipelines span the country, including the Blue Stream, TurkStream, and Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipelines.[345]
Istanbul is Turkey’s largest city,[372] and its economic and financial center.
According to the Address-Based Population Recording System, the country’s population was 85,372,377 in 2023, excluding Syrians under temporary protection.[8] 93% lived in province and district centers.[8] People within the 15–64 and 0–14 age groups corresponded to 68.3% and 21.4% of the total population, respectively. Those aged 65 years or older made up 10.2%.[8] Between 1950 and 2020, Turkey’s population more than quadrupled from 20.9 million to 83.6 million;[373] however, the population growth rate was 0.1% in 2023.[8] In 2023, the total fertility rate was 1.51 children per woman, below the replacement rate of 2.10 per woman.[374] In a 2018 health survey, the ideal children number was 2.8 children per woman, rising to 3 per married woman.[375]
Article 66 of the Turkish Constitution defines a Turk as anyone who is a citizen.[377] It is estimated that there are at least 47 ethnic groups represented in Turkey.[378] Reliable data on the ethnic mix of the population is not available because census figures do not include statistics on ethnicity after the 1965 Turkish census.[379] According to the World Factbook, 70–75% of the country’s citizens are ethnic Turks.[5] Based on a survey, KONDA‘s estimation was 76% in 2006, with 78% of adult citizens self-identifying their ethnic background as Turk.[380] In 2021, 77% of adult citizens identified as such in a survey.[381]
Kurds are the largest ethnic minority.[382] Their exact numbers remain disputed,[382] with estimates ranging from 12 to 20% of the population.[383] The Kurds make up a majority in the provinces of Ağrı, Batman, Bingöl, Bitlis, Diyarbakır, Hakkari, Iğdır, Mardin, Muş, Siirt, Şırnak, Tunceli and Van; a near majority in Şanlıurfa (47%); and a large minority in Kars (20%).[384] In addition, internal migration has resulted in Kurdish diaspora communities in all of the major cities in central and western Turkey. In Istanbul, there are an estimated three million Kurds, making it the city with the largest Kurdish population in the world.[385] 19% of adult citizens identified as ethnic Kurds in a survey in 2021.[381] Some people have multiple ethnic identities, such as both Turk and Kurd.[386][387] In 2006, an estimated 2.7 million ethnic Turks and Kurds were related from interethnic marriages.[388]
According to the World Factbook, non-Kurdish ethnic minorities are 7–12% of the population.[5] In 2006, KONDA estimated that non-Kurdish and non-Zaza ethnic minorities constituted 8.2% of the population; these were people that gave general descriptions such as Turkish citizen, people with other Turkic backgrounds, Arabs, and others.[380] In 2021, 4% of adult citizens identified as non-ethnic Turk or non-ethnic Kurd in a survey.[381] According to the Constitutional Court, there are only four officially recognized minorities in Turkey: the three non-Muslim minorities recognized in the Treaty of Lausanne (Armenians, Greeks, and Jews[e]) and the Bulgarians.[f][392][393][394] In 2013, the Ankara 13th Circuit Administrative Court ruled that the minority provisions of the Lausanne Treaty should also apply to Assyrians in Turkey and the Syriac language.[395][396][397] Other unrecognized ethnic groups include Albanians, Bosniaks, Circassians, Georgians, Laz, Pomaks, and Roma.[398][399][400]
Excluding Syrians under temporary protection, there were 1,570,543 foreign citizens in Turkey in 2023.[8] Millions of Kurds fled across the mountains to Turkey and the Kurdish areas of Iran during the Gulf War in 1991. Turkey’s migrant crisis in the 2010s and early 2020s resulted in the influx of millions of refugees and immigrants.[406] Turkey hosts the largest number of refugees in the world as of April 2020.[407] The Disaster and Emergency Management Presidency manages the refugee crisis in Turkey. Before the start of the Syrian civil war in 2011, the estimated number of Arabs in Turkey varied from 1 million to more than 2 million.[408]
In November 2020, there were 3.6 million Syrian refugees in Turkey;[409] these included other ethnic groups of Syria, such as Syrian Kurds[410] and Syrian Turkmens.[411] As of August 2023, the number of these refugees was estimated to be 3.3 million. The number of Syrians had decreased by about 200,000 people since the beginning of the year.[412] The government has granted citizenship to 238 thousand Syrians by November 2023.[413] As of May 2023, approximately 96,000 Ukrainian refugees of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine have sought refuge in Turkey.[414] In 2022, nearly 100,000 Russian citizens migrated to Turkey, becoming the first in the list of foreigners who moved to Turkey, meaning an increase of more than 218% from 2021.[415]
The percentage of non-Muslims in modern-day Turkey was 19.1% in 1914, but fell to 2.5% in 1927.[423] Currently, non-Muslims constitute 0.2% of the population according to the World Factbook.[5] In 2006, KONDA’s estimate was 0.18% for people with non-Islam religions.[421] Some of the non-Muslim communities are Armenians, Assyrians, Bulgarian Orthodox, Catholics, Greeks, Jews, and Protestants.[424] Sources estimate that the Christian population in Turkey ranges between 180,000 and 320,000.[425][426] Turkey has the largest Jewish community among the Muslim-majority countries.[427] Currently, there are 439 churches and synagogues in Turkey.[428]
In 2006, KONDA’s estimate was 0.47% for those with no religion.[421] According to KONDA, share of adult citizens who identified as unbeliever increased from 2% in 2011 to 6% in 2021.[381] A 2020 Gezici Araştırma poll found that 28.5% of the Generation Zidentify as irreligious.[429][430]
In the past 20 years, Turkey has improved quality of education and has made significant progress in increasing education access.[432] From 2011 to 2021, improvements in education access include “one of the largest increases in educational attainment for 25-34 year-olds at upper secondary non-tertiary or tertiary education”, and quadrupling of pre-school institutions.[433]PISA results suggest improvements in education quality.[433] There is still a gap with OECD countries. Significant challenges include differences in student outcomes from different schools, differences between rural and urban areas, pre-primary education access, and arrival of students who are Syrian refugees.[433]
The Ministry of Health has run a universal public healthcare system since 2003.[446] Known as Universal Health Insurance (Genel Sağlık Sigortası), it is funded by a tax surcharge on employers, currently at 5%.[446] Public-sector funding covers approximately 75.2% of health expenditures.[446] Despite the universal health care, total expenditure on health as a share of GDP in 2018 was the lowest among OECD countries at 6.3% of GDP, compared to the OECD average of 9.3%.[446] There are many private hospitals in the country.[447] The government planned several hospital complexes, known as city hospitals, to be constructed since 2013.[447] Turkey is one of the top 10 destinations for health tourism.[448]
Average life expectancy is 78.6 years (75.9 for males and 81.3 for females), compared with the EU average of 81 years.[446] Turkey has high rates of obesity, with 29.5% of its adult population having a body mass index (BMI) value of 30 or above.[449]Air pollution is a major cause of early death.[450]
In the 19th century, Turkish identity was debated in the Ottoman Empire, with three main views: Turkism, Islamism and Westernism.[451] In addition to Europe or Islam, Turkish culture was also influenced by Anatolia’s native cultures.[452] After the establishment of the republic, Kemalism emphasized Turkish culture, attempted to make “Islam a matter of personal conviction”, and pursued modernization.[453] Currently, Turkey has various local cultures. Things such as music, folk dance, or kebap variety may be used to identify a local area. Turkey also has a national culture, such as national sports leagues, music bands, film stars, and trends in fashion.[454] Turkey is home to 21 UNESCO World Heritage sites and 31 UNESCO intangible cultural heritage inscriptions.[455]
Turkish literature goes back more than a thousand years. The Seljuk and Ottoman periods include numerous works of literature and poetry. Turkic tales and poetry from Central Asia were also kept alive. Tales of Dede Korkut is an example of the oral narrative tradition. Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk, from the 11th century, contains Turkish linguistic information and poetry. Yunus Emre, influenced by Rumi, was one of the most important writers of Anatolian Turkish poetry. Ottoman Divan poetry used “refined diction” and complex vocabulary. It included Sufi mysticism, romanticism, and formal elements.[456]
Turkey has four “major theatrical traditions”: “folk theatre, popular theatre, court theater, and Western theater.” Turkish folk theatre goes back thousands of years and has survived among rural communities. Popular theatre includes plays by live actors, puppet and shadow plays, and storytelling performances. An example for shadow play is Karagöz and Hacivat. Court theatre was the refined version of popular theatre. Beginning in the 19th century, Western theatre tradition started appearing in Turkey. Following the establishment of Turkish Republic, a state conservatory and the State Theatre Company were formed.[458]
Turkey’s visual arts scene can be categorized into two, as “decorative” and “fine” arts. Fine arts, or güzel sanatlar, includes sculpture and painting. Turkish artists in these areas have gained global recognition. Photography, fashion design, graphic arts, and graphic design are some of the other areas Turkish artists are known for in the world. The inaugural contemporary Turkish art sale by Sotheby’s London was in 2009. Istanbul Modern and the Istanbul Biennial are examples of art galleries or exhibitions of contemporary Turkish art. Turkey has also seen a resurgence of traditional arts. This includes Ottoman-era traditional arts, such as ceramics and carpets. Textile and carpet design, glass and ceramics, calligraphy, paper marbling (ebru) are some of the art forms for which modern-day Turkish artists are recognized as leaders in the Islamic world.[459]
Although classifying genres of Turkish music can be problematic, three broad categories can be considered. These are “Turkish folk music“, “Turkish art music“, and multiple popular music styles. These Popular music styles include arabesque, pop, and Anatolian rock.[460]
Since 1918, Turkish architecture can be divided into three parts. From 1918 to 1950, the first one includes the First National Architectural Movement period, which transitioned into modernist architecture. Modernist and monumental buildings were preferred for public buildings, whereas “Turkish house” type vernacular architecture influenced private houses. From 1950 to 1980, the second part includes urbanization, modernization, and internationalization. For residential housing, “reinforced concrete, slab-block, medium-rise apartments” became prevalent. Since 1980, the third part is defined by consumer habits and international trends, such as shopping malls and office towers. Luxury residences with “Turkish house style” have been in demand.[472] In the 21st century, urban renewal projects have become a trend.[473] Resilience against natural disasters such as earthquakes is one of the main goals for urban renewal projects.[474] Around one-third of Turkey’s building stock, corresponding to 6.7 million units, were assessed risky and needing urban renewal.[475]
Turkey has a diverse and rich cuisine, varying geographically.[478] Turkish cuisine has been influenced by Anatolian, Mediterranean, Iranian, Central Asian, and East Asian cuisines.[479] Turkish and Ottoman cuisine have also influenced others. Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk, from the 11th century, documents “the ancient lineage of much of present-day Turkish cuisine”.[479]Güveç, Bulgur, and Börek are some of the earliest recorded examples of Turkish cuisine. Even though kebab as a word comes from Persian, Turkic people had been familiar with using skewers to cook meat. Turkish cuisine can be distinguished by its various kinds of kebabs. Similarly, pilaf dishes were influenced by Turkish cuisine. Further information about cuisine during the Seljuk and Ottoman periods comes from the works of Rumi and Evliya Çelebi. The latter describes “food-related guilds of Istanbul”.[479]
Food staples in Turkey include bread and yogurt. Some of bread varieties are lavash and pide (a type of pita bread). Ayran is a drink made of yoghurt. In western parts of Turkey, olive oil is used. Grains include wheat, maize, barley, oats, and millet. Beans, chickpeas, nuts, aubergines, and lamb are some of the commonly used ingredients.[479]Doner kebab, originally from Turkey, is marinated lamb slices cooked vertically.[480] Seafood includes anchovy and others. Dolma varieties and mantı are made by stuffing vegetables or pasta.[479]Sarma is made by rolling edible leaf over the filling.[481]Yahni dishes are vegetable stews.[479] Turkey is one of the countries with the meze tradition.[482] Honey, pekmez, dried fruit, or fruit are used for sweetening.[479]Filo is an originally Turkish dough that is used to make baklava.[483]Turkish delight is a “delicate but gummy jelly”.[484]
The traditional national sport of Turkey has been yağlı güreş (oilwrestling) since Ottoman times.[494] Edirne Province has hosted the annual Kırkpınar oil wrestling tournament since 1361, making it the oldest continuously held sporting competition in the world.[495][496] In the 19th and early 20th centuries, oil wrestling champions such as Koca Yusuf, Nurullah Hasan and Kızılcıklı Mahmut acquired international fame in Europe and North America by winning world heavyweight wrestling championship titles. International wrestling styles governed by FILA such as freestyle wrestling and Greco-Roman wrestling are also popular, with many European, World and Olympic championship titles won by Turkish wrestlers both individually and as a national team.[497]
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